The Merging of Cultures During the New World Discovery Essay

The Merging of Cultures During the New World Discovery The voyages of the Iberians marked history. The discovery of the new world meant the unification of two old worlds. These old worlds had different beliefs, attitudes, language, and values. The culture of these two worlds would never be the same. The native peoples of America at the end of the fifteenth century ranged from the simplest hunting-fishing-gathering societies to highly developed civilizations with urban and peasant components. In spite of these notable differences, they were alike in that they had all developed from the level of pre-bow-arrow hunters without significant contact with other regions. There high civilizations were based on agricultural and trading†¦show more content†¦These people grew corn, yams, and other roots for food; they knew how to make cassava bread, to spin and weave cotton, and make pottery. Columbus wrote, They invite you to share anything that they posess, and show as much love as their hearts were in it. The impression to the European scholars was that the ignorance to money and iron, and their nudity was due to the fact that these people were holdovers from the golden age. The Indians were organized into class societies (with few possible exceptions among the more rudimentary societies) and the poor were ground under the heel of the rich. This system was sanctioned by the Indian laws and customs, and based on the inequalities of land ownership. The poor lived in miserable huts, did all the labor, and enjoyed none of the amenities of life, except indulgence in the forms of escape from misery and relief from oppression that characterized many other peoples in Europe and Asia. The peoples inhabiting America in 1492 were divided into many hundreds of language groups. The following main groups may be distinguished: 1.The Nahua-speaking peoples from Central Mexico to Nicaragua. 2.The Maya: Yucatan and Guatemala. 3.The Chibchas: Central America, western Columbia, and northwestern Ecuador. 4.The Quechuas: the Andean mountains from southern Ecuador to northern Chile. 5.The Aymaras: Highlands of Bolivia. 6.TheShow MoreRelatedThe Rise of Europe853 Words   |  4 PagesThe Rise of Europe Contemporary world power, and the shift from the East to the West during what historian’s term, Medieval/Renaissance Europe, shifted the roles of two vastly different empires – the Ming and Ottoman. Even though we barely even touched on the Ming Empire, I feel like the significance of it, is far too grand to leave out in describing the rise of Europe. Both empires had different types of leadership and core goals – military and social. The Ming Empire was led by brilliant philosophicalRead MoreThe Transition Of Medieval And Modern Times1235 Words   |  5 Pagesbegan, and art emerged to create a brighter society. During the Reformation, the country shifted away from the Roman Catholic Church, and many Protestant religions emerged. The Scientific Revolution also marked a change in medical to modern by creating new ways to look at the world and mathematics. The Age of Discovery marked yet another change in Medical to modern Europe when new technologies emerged in order to navigate around the world. Along with many other rulers, King Louis XIV changed FranceRead MoreThe First Glimpse Of Globalization1573 Words   |  7 PagesGlobalization is the process in which a world-wide circulation of goods, ideas, and people takes place. Historically, there were two periods of profound expansion, the 15th and 16th century and 20th and 21st century. 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While there are many things individuals and communities can gain from the influence of globalisationRead MoreThe Impact of Culture on Politics1522 Words   |  7 PagesOld Dominion University | The Impact of Culture on Virginia Politics | POLS 311 | Geraldine Pearman 9-19-2015 | Geraldine Pearman Virginia History and Politics Dr. Pelletier Fall 2015 The Impact of Culture on Virginia Politics A culture can be defined as a way of life of a group of people- their behaviors, beliefs, values that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next. It also includes the customs, arts, literature, morals/values and traditionsRead MoreCase Analysis of Lenovo MA IBM PC department3533 Words   |  15 Pages Investment Alternatives and Analysis for Fair Value Case Analysis of Lenovo Merging and Acquiring IBM PC Department Contents Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1~4 Body 1. The critical successful factors that are the focus of the successful MA activities †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 4~6 2. The summary of lessons learned which made the factors successful†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 6~8 3. 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A purchase deal will be called a mergerRead More Transculturation in Our Sister Killyjoy and Nervous Conditions2614 Words   |  11 Pageshybridity and transculturation. The latter, ‘transculturation’ is the term used to define ‘cultural change induced by introduction of elements of a foreign culture.’[1] The term ‘transculturation’ was first coined by Cuban anthropologist and sociologist Fernando Ortiz in 1947 to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures. Transculturation covers war, ethnic conflict, racism and multiculturalism, hence it is a concept very relevant to the postcolonial period and subsequently

Program Planning and Evaluation Paper - 815 Words

Program Planning and Evaluation Paper Nicole Debski HSM/270 PROGRAM PLANNING amp; GRANT PROPOSAL WRITNG IN HUM SERV (AXIA) Janice Gilstorff, MPA Faculty University of Phoenix 8/1/2010 Program Planning and Evaluation Paper The first questions ask how program planning and program evaluation describe how the two components relate. In my opinion they relate because once you have a plan in order you have to evaluate it to see if the plan is working. You also need to know what area need to be work on and what the cause of the problem and how to resolve them. The second question Identify specific examples of how program planning and evaluation interrelate in your chosen scenario in Appendix B. in my opinion program planning and†¦show more content†¦Issue that in my opinion would affect the evaluation of a domestic violence program would be lack of information on the victim and abuser. Another affect on evaluation would be is there a data base on domestic violence crime. Is the data assessable, is there a statistic rate what is the ratio of women, men, and children been victim of domestic violence. Other issue that could affect the planning of domestic violence is the long term affect of being a victim of domestic violence. According to (N.D), [The long term effects of domestic violence have not begun to be fully documented. Battered women suffer physical and mental problems as a result of domestic violence. Battering is the single major cause of injury to women, more significant that auto accidents, rapes, or muggings. In fact, t he emotional and psychological abuse inflicted by batterers may be more costly to treat in the short-run than physical injury. Many of the physical injuries sustained by women seem to cause medical difficulties as women grow older. Arthritis, hypertension and heart disease have been identified by battered women as directly caused or aggravated by domestic violence suffered early in their adult lives. Battered women lose their jobs because of absenteeism due to illness as a result of the violence. Absences occasioned by court appearances also jeopardize womens livelihood. Battered women may have to move many times to avoid violence. Moving is costly and can interfere with continuityShow MoreRelatedProgram Planning and Evaluation Paper840 Words   |  4 PagesAssignment: Program Planning and Evaluation Paper Janice Minnis HSM/270: Programming Planning and Grant Proposal Writing in Human Services August 21, 2011 Terri Galindo Axia College of University of Phoenix I have chosen to work with Program Scenario Three, PEACE Domestic Violence Agency. Yuen/Terao (2003) states, â€Å"Program planning is an organized process through which a set of coordinated activities or interventions is developed to address and facilitate change in some or all of theRead MoreProgram Planning and Evaluation Paper Hsm/270747 Words   |  3 PagesProgram Planning and Evaluation Paper HSM/270 June 17th, 2012 Bonita Comer Program Planning and Evaluation Paper Program planning is a process to achieve a particular goal and/or mission. Program planning is an organized process through which a set of coordinated activities or interventions is developed to address and facilitate change in some or all of the identified problems. 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To begin with, this paper will provide a comprehensive program evaluation model for the program. Secondly, it will outline the evaluation framework the program will use to evaluate the program. Next, the paper will provide a timeline detailing when critical evolution task for the program willRead MoreFinal Program Summary Hsm 2701701 Words   |  7 PagesProject Program Summary Jeerna Meador HSM/270 Program Planning and Grant Proposal Writing in Hum Serv (Axia) Instructor: Richard Perrone Week Nine The overall purpose of this paper is to compare program planning in a human service organization by describing how they are related.    There will be examples of how program planning and evaluation interrelate with the PEACE Domestic Violence Agency. We will also look at the technical and political aspects of program planning and evaluation that mightRead MoreThe Role Of Professional Training On The Community It Serves, It s Resources, And Activities1547 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction The process of evaluating a program can be an arduous task requiring systematic and dedicated planning. It is describe as, the aspect of professional training aimed at helping to integrate research and best practices (Royce et al., 2015). The purpose of an evaluation is to assess a program’s value to the community it serves, it’s resources, and activities that enrich the learning of its members (Mondisa McComb, 2015). Proponents of STEM on the national and local levels have investedRead MoreAn Interview Via Email With An Adult Program Programmer1474 Words   |  6 PagesThe intent of this paper is to provide the details of an interview via email with an adult program programmer. The person selected was Ms. Desiree W. Dixon. 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Educate the paddy farmers about causes and effects of chronic kidney disease, how to prevent and overcome the disease, usage of agrochemicalsRead MoreAlaska Team Support964 Words   |  4 Pagesinvolvement were in the Junior Achievement program, the Air Force Airman Financial Literacy program and in support of the Joint Base Elmendorf Richardson Wounded Warrior rodeo. In addition to this, I also participated in the local Fun Times activities with the rest of the Booz Allen team in Alaska. I volunteered as a mentor and presenter to a local high school with Junior Achievement. I combined my academic, military and business background in a program for high school to motivate and encourage excellenceRead MoreEssay on Hsm/270 Week 6 Checkpoint1205 Words   |  5 Pagesabout the programs it will offer they have to start thinking about the processes and outcomes they want to use and achieve through their program. They need to find the best ways to run their program that follows their mission and produces outcomes that help support that same mission. Process and outcome evaluations in a human service setting help the organization to better understand the outcomes of their programs and the processes in which the outcomes came. (Yuen, Terao, 2003) This paper will walk

Authentication Is A Vital Aspect Of Modernâ€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Authentication Is A Vital Aspect Of Modern? Answer: Introducation Authentication is a vital aspect of the modern technological landscape as most of the digital platforms are facilitated by personalised accounts and portals. This outcome forces users to use multiple authentication systems that are supported by many passwords which make their management a difficult undertaking. As a solution, OneLogin offers a one stop shop for managing logins into applications (Apps) and online sites. Now, even before mentioning the attack at hand, as a cyber-security expert one can foresee the problems with this systems if compromised, as it gives intruders the access needed to compromise multiple user systems (OneLogin customer)(Coldewey, 2017). In all, the company suffered a breach in its security systems earlier in the year where customers data was exposed. Furthermore, the intruders proceeded to compromise the operational structure of the companys system which affected the ability to decrypt data. To understand, how the operation structure of the system was affected, one needs to understand the foundation of the service offered. OneLogin uses a cloud infrastructure to store and manage its customers vital information such as usernames and passwords. This infrastructure is necessary owing to the extent of the services offered as they span over 44 countries and have over 2000 companies. Therefore, the cloud solutions increase the availability and mobility of resources. However, to ferry the said resources over the internet they are encrypted to unreadable formats which when supplied to customers is decrypted revealing the access details. Therefore, when the decryption facility was affected, this functionality was compromised plus the data exposed(Fiveash, 2017). How and why the attacked occurred In its official statement, OneLogin failed to outline the nature of the attack, only assuring the customers that investigations to the problem would be conducted. However, the worrying outcome of the attack was the steps outlined by the company, as they tried to secure the accounts used by their customers. The steps included the generation of new API (Application Program Interface) keys and OAuth tokens (the general system for accessing the accounts). Moreover, the organization also requested the customers to create new security certificates and recycle all security features within the OneLogin accounts. Finally, the customers were then asked to update their access passwords(OneLogin). A quick glance at these security precautions outlines the how and maybe the why the attack happened. For one, the hosting system used by the company must have been completely compromised to gain primary access or admin credentials which necessitated a complete change in functionalities. How? An independent observer highlighted that the intruders accessed the companys system by gaining access to a number of AWS keys, the cloud infrastructure used by OneLogin. Amazon Web Service (AWS) is a cloud solution that is used by multiple companies across the globe to host their services, and OneLogin equivalently hosted its services across its multiple platforms. Now, having acquired the access passwords/keys, the intruder then used them to access the overall AWS APIs through a subsidiary hosting service offered by an intermediary organization within the United States. The criminal then further created several infrastructure instances within the AWS to perform a general reconnaissance. It is through this assessment that the intruder viewed and accessed the database tables holding the customers access data i.e. the username and passwords(OneLogin). Why? The intruders were only able to access the company AWS infrastructure using a set of legitimate keys used by the organization which means there was an initial breach that was used to acquire the companys access passwords. However, since the organization failed to disclose the methods used to access them, speculations were used to answer the questions. For one, cloud infrastructures and solutions are known to have many security procedures that regularly exposes them to misconfiguration instances. Therefore, OneLogin could have failed to implement certain security procedures to safeguard the root access to the AWS servers which ultimately gave the intruders primary access. The second option is that of negligence where the systems admins exposed the set of keys used to a third party member who subsequently used them to trigger the attack(Barrett, 2017). Possible solutions Single sign-on (SSO) organizations are generally discouraged as they are a single point of failure if compromised. In essence, these systems like any other cyber feature will have multiple vulnerabilities and unlike other systems will have multiple assets that heavily exposes the users. Therefore as an isolation tactic, they are never used as they grant intruders an all access point to any assets owned by a user. So, the first and most important solution to the problem at hand is to avoid the service in general, other than for supplementary features that have minimal confidential information(Kerbs, 2017). Nevertheless, when used, several solutions exist more so to the supporting organization i.e. OneLogin. The company should reassess their security policy as it gave access to a third party member. In the future, the AWS infrastructure should have multiple check points before being deployed online. These points or access procedures would verify the applications used before they are deployed. Furthermore, the same system would help account for access, a functionality that helped contain the problem in this instance. Therefore, the existing intrusion detection systems should continue to be used as it helped manage the situation and even avoided any financial damage. On behalf of the users, they should regularly update their access procedures as outlined by the host company. Furthermore, they should never store their passwords using the automatic features available in web browsers(10 basic cybersecurity measures: best prcatices to reduce exploitable weaknesses and attacks, 2017). May ransomware attack One of the most troubling and extensive attacks occurred earlier in the year where millions of cyber systems users were attacked by a vicious malware program known as WannaCry. As a malware program, WannaCry is the complete definition of a ransomware as it was able to penetrate many systems throughout different networks demanding ransoms in exchange for restoring services. Furthermore, the malware was a complete revolution of the existing programs that had been neutralised using several vulnerabilities that they held. In comparison, WannaCry was quick and invisible to security protocols which made it difficult to contain it, in fact, it was only detected after the damage was done(Greenberg, 2017). The root or problem WannaCry started its attacks in May, where it affected thousands of computers worldwide using the internet connection. According to Kerbs (2017), the attack was witnessed in over 100 countries after its access methods were unveiled in the United States. Now, the access method was done using a vulnerability in Windows computer system, an outcome that was instigated by a rogue hack group called Shadow Brokers that gained access to NSA hack tools. Therefore, using the hack tools the intruders infected multiple cyber systems in an attempt to gain some financial returns(Gibbs, 2017). Who was affected and how According to Greenberg (2017), the heaviest attack was witnessed across 150 countries where approximately 200,000 systems were compromised. These systems failed to work for hours and some of them lost their content permanently as they were reconfigured to stop the spread of the malware. Nevertheless, some countries were more affected as compared to others, the likes of United Kingdom (UK), Russia, Spain and China. In the UK for instance, the ransomware viciously infected the medical industry to an almost crippling effect as many systems were compromised. To the medical personnel, the attack halted their work as it demanded a ransom of $300. Similarly, the patients and other affiliated users of the NHS (National Health System, UK) had to live with extended delays as medical records went missing(Sherr, 2017). On the other hand, Russia had to deal with a worrying possibility of losing a grip on its public systems including the Health and Interior ministries. Furthermore, the countrys railway system was affected and so was the private sector after an extensive attack targeted the banking industry. The same outcome was also witnessed in Spain as the countrys telecommunication and electrical industry was affected by the attacks on Telefonica (Spains second largest telecommunication company) and Iberdrola (electrical company)(Hern Gibbs, 2017). The attack method and steps The National Security Agency (NSA) was the root of the problem as their access systems provided the foundation of the intrusion. This organization holds several hacking tools or techniques that they use as cyber-weapons, among these tools was the Windows vulnerability witnessed in this attack. In the attack, the EternalBlue vulnerability was used where it accessed Window messaging blocks, through the server messaging block protocol (SMB). In all the SMB protocol can serve as an all access item if compromised, an outcome that was verified by the WannaCry attack. As a protocol, SMB will enable machines connected in networks to access, read and write files which facilitate the different functionalities of computers. Moreover, the same protocol will enable the same machines to request services and even resources through the connected networks(News, 2017). Now, WannaCry banked on this vulnerability to attack machines as an access to one computer gave complete access to the connected networks, in fact, the attack process was aided by the same systems that facilitated the operations of the networks. Attack procedure: At the start, the intrusion first targeted unsecured networks as identified by unprotected access ports. Through these ports, the malwares starter (stager) was uploaded into a machine while being encrypted. In the next stage, the encrypted file was decrypted and the malware activated to perform its illicit operations. Furthermore, while conducting its activities, the malware also scanned for other unsecured ports where it sent the starter program to start the process all over again. Therefore, at the end of the attack, a complete and self-replicating program was used to infect thousands of machines without any form of human intervention(McGoogan, Titcomb, Krol, 2017). Solution A strong reminder of why machines and networks should have secured ports at all time with the unused ports being deactivated. In most cases, networks are infiltrated because of the negligence witnessed in setting them up. Therefore, even though the malware was stopped by its own vulnerabilities, its overwhelming success was propelled by networks problems because the users failed to implement the best security features. In some networks, the users had rogue access points through their mobile devices which facilitated the malwares success as these devices lacked the necessary security countermeasures(labs, 2016). However, while outlining the solutions that might have been used to avoid the attack, one cannot overlook the contribution of the vulnerability exploited by WannaCry (EternalBlue). Windows like any other modern organization prioritised on system deployment as compared to the security features, which was verified by them releasing an update patch. Furthermore, the users of the said systems should have had adequate security procedures to detect the faults in the messaging blocks before they were exploited. Therefore, these organization should restructure their security policies to have procedures that continuously evaluate their access protocols, the ultimate solution to the problem(labs, 2016). References 10 basic cybersecurity measures: best prcatices to reduce exploitable weaknesses and attacks. (2017). WaterISAC, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://www.mamsb.org.my/wp-content/uploads/10_Basic_Cybersecurity_MeasuresOct20162.pdf. Barrett, B. (2017). Security News This Week: OneLogin Had One Very Bad Breach. Wired, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://www.wired.com/2017/06/security-news-week-onelogin-one-bad-breach/. Coldewey, D. (2017). OneLogin admits recent breach is pretty dang serious. Tech crunch, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://techcrunch.com/2017/06/01/onelogin-admits-recent-breach-is-pretty-dang-serious/. Fiveash, K. (2017). OneLogin suffers breachcustomer data said to be exposed, decrypted. Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2017/06/onelogin-data-breach-compromised-decrypted/. Gibbs, S. (2017). WannaCry: hackers withdraw 108,000 of bitcoin ransom. The guardian, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/aug/03/wannacry-hackers-withdraw-108000-pounds-bitcoin-ransom. Greenberg, A. (2017). The WannaCry Ransomware Hackers Made Some Real Amateur Mistakes. Wired, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://www.wired.com/2017/05/wannacry-ransomware-hackers-made-real-amateur-mistakes/. Hern, A., Gibbs, S. (2017). What is WannaCry ransomware and why is it attacking global computers? . The guardian, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/12/nhs-ransomware-cyber-attack-what-is-wanacrypt0r-20. Kerbs. (2017). OneLogin: Breach Exposed Ability to Decrypt Data. Kerbs on security, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://krebsonsecurity.com/2017/06/onelogin-breach-exposed-ability-to-decrypt-data/. labs, F. s. (2016). Ransomware: How to predict, prevent, detect and respond. F secure, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://www.f-secure.com/documents/996508/1030745/Ransomware_how_to_ppdr.pdf. McGoogan, C., Titcomb, J., Krol, C. (2017). What is WannaCry and how does ransomware work? The Telegraph, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/0/ransomware-does-work/. News, B. (2017). Massive ransomware infection hits computers in 99 countries. BBC News, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-39901382. OneLogin. (n.d.). May 31, 2017 Security Incident (UPDATED June 8, 2017). Onelogin block, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://www.onelogin.com/blog/may-31-2017-security-incident. Sherr, I. (2017). WannaCry ransomware: Everything you need to know. Cnet, Retrieved 28 August, 2017, from: https://www.cnet.com/news/wannacry-wannacrypt-uiwix-ransomware-everything-you-need-to-know/.

Salmon Essays - Salmon, Oncorhynchus, Thamnophis, Ichthyology

Salmon What species would travel over 2000 miles just to have young and then die? It has been said that anyone who has not seen a wild salmon has not seen what a fish should be. Salmon was the common name applied to fish characterized by an elongated body covered with small, rounded scales and a fleshy fin between the dorsal fin and tail. In this paper I will be discussing history of studying salmon, the life cycle, spawning and mating behaviors; which has much to do with the total reproduction of salmon. Salmon were studied earlier than some may think. Experiments were done by men that date back to the mid-1600s. These experiments involved catching salmon in fresh water, tagging them, and then catching them again when they return to the same place, around six months later. These experiments were doubtful and it was not until the beginning of the 1900's that proof was available that the salmon returned home. (Shearer) Although usually drab in color before the breeding season, which varies with the species, members of the salmon family develop bright hues at spawning time. The male, during this mating season, usually develops a hooked snout and a humped back. "In many diverse taxa, males of the same species often exhibit multiple mating strategies. One well-documented alternative male reproductive pattern is 'female mimicry,' whereby males assume a female-like morphology or mimic female behavior patterns. In some species males mimic both female morphology and behavior. We report here female mimicry in a reptile, the red-sided garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis). This form of mimicry is unique in that it is expressed as a physiological feminization. Courting male red-sided garter snakes detect a female-specific pheromone and normally avoid courting other males. However, a small proportion of males release a pheromone that attracts other males, as though they were females. In the field, mating aggregations of 5-17 males were observed formed around these individual attractive males, which we have termed 'she-males.' In competitive mating trials, she-males mated with females significantly more often than did normal males, demonstrating not only reproductive competence but also a possible selective advantage to males with this female-like pheromone." In the competitive mating trials, the she-males were successful in 29 out of 42 trials. The normal males won out in only 13! The authors ask the question: Why aren't all males she-males given such an advantage? (Mason, Robert T., and Crews, David; "Female Mimicry in Garter Snakes," Nature, 316:59, 1985.) Comment. Among the fishes, bluegills and salmon (and probably many others) have female-appearing males competing with normal males. Abstract: The influence of sperm competition and individual mating behaviour in an externally fertilizing species of fish, the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), is estimated from video observations of multiple-male spawnings and subsequent paternity analyses. One male dominated the paternity during polygamous spawnings, fathering more than 80% of the progeny in a single nest. Behavioural analyses of the spawnings showed that the first-mating male had sperm precedence in 6 out of 10 cases. In three of the other spawnings, sperm limitation likely influenced individual success, as the first-mating male had participated in a large number of spawnings. In the final, nearly simultaneous spawning, male size was more important than the 0.6-s difference in spawning times. Thus, male fertilization success can be influenced by a variety of factors, including sperm precedence, male size, and spawning history. Back to Table of Contents Before mating, one parent excavates a nest for the eggs; after the eggs are deposited and fertilized, the female stirs up the stream bottom so that earth and stones cover the eggs and protect them. The eggs hatch in two weeks to six months, depending on the species and the water temperature. During the migrations and nest-building activity that precede mating, neither the females nor the males consume food. In the life cycle of the pacific salmon, nature recycles the parents to feed the babies. Mature salmon leave the Pacific Ocean as saltwater fish, never again to eat as they battle their way up the Columbia River to spawn in the home stream where they were born. Those born in the upper reaches of the Columbia River's tributary stream, the Snake River, travel more than 1,000 miles inland to lay their eggs and fertilize them, roughly one fourth of the distance across the United States. Without enough reserves in their bodies to get back to the Pacific, the adult salmon spawn and die. To spawn, a female salmon scoops a nest in stream-bottom gravel by waving her tail and deposits her eggs in Salmon Essays - Salmon, Oncorhynchus, Thamnophis, Ichthyology Salmon What species would travel over 2000 miles just to have young and then die? It has been said that anyone who has not seen a wild salmon has not seen what a fish should be. Salmon was the common name applied to fish characterized by an elongated body covered with small, rounded scales and a fleshy fin between the dorsal fin and tail. In this paper I will be discussing history of studying salmon, the life cycle, spawning and mating behaviors; which has much to do with the total reproduction of salmon. Salmon were studied earlier than some may think. Experiments were done by men that date back to the mid-1600s. These experiments involved catching salmon in fresh water, tagging them, and then catching them again when they return to the same place, around six months later. These experiments were doubtful and it was not until the beginning of the 1900's that proof was available that the salmon returned home. (Shearer) Although usually drab in color before the breeding season, which varies with the species, members of the salmon family develop bright hues at spawning time. The male, during this mating season, usually develops a hooked snout and a humped back. "In many diverse taxa, males of the same species often exhibit multiple mating strategies. One well-documented alternative male reproductive pattern is 'female mimicry,' whereby males assume a female-like morphology or mimic female behavior patterns. In some species males mimic both female morphology and behavior. We report here female mimicry in a reptile, the red-sided garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis). This form of mimicry is unique in that it is expressed as a physiological feminization. Courting male red-sided garter snakes detect a female-specific pheromone and normally avoid courting other males. However, a small proportion of males release a pheromone that attracts other males, as though they were females. In the field, mating aggregations of 5-17 males were observed formed around these individual attractive males, which we have termed 'she-males.' In competitive mating trials, she-males mated with females significantly more often than did normal males, demonstrating not only reproductive competence but also a possible selective advantage to males with this female-like pheromone." In the competitive mating trials, the she-males were successful in 29 out of 42 trials. The normal males won out in only 13! The authors ask the question: Why aren't all males she-males given such an advantage? (Mason, Robert T., and Crews, David; "Female Mimicry in Garter Snakes," Nature, 316:59, 1985.) Comment. Among the fishes, bluegills and salmon (and probably many others) have female-appearing males competing with normal males. Abstract: The influence of sperm competition and individual mating behaviour in an externally fertilizing species of fish, the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), is estimated from video observations of multiple-male spawnings and subsequent paternity analyses. One male dominated the paternity during polygamous spawnings, fathering more than 80% of the progeny in a single nest. Behavioural analyses of the spawnings showed that the first-mating male had sperm precedence in 6 out of 10 cases. In three of the other spawnings, sperm limitation likely influenced individual success, as the first-mating male had participated in a large number of spawnings. In the final, nearly simultaneous spawning, male size was more important than the 0.6-s difference in spawning times. Thus, male fertilization success can be influenced by a variety of factors, including sperm precedence, male size, and spawning history. Back to Table of Contents Before mating, one parent excavates a nest for the eggs; after the eggs are deposited and fertilized, the female stirs up the stream bottom so that earth and stones cover the eggs and protect them. The eggs hatch in two weeks to six months, depending on the species and the water temperature. During the migrations and nest-building activity that precede mating, neither the females nor the males consume food. In the life cycle of the pacific salmon, nature recycles the parents to feed the babies. Mature salmon leave the Pacific Ocean as saltwater fish, never again to eat as they battle their way up the Columbia River to spawn in the home stream where they were born. Those born in the upper reaches of the Columbia River's tributary stream, the Snake River, travel more than 1,000 miles inland to lay their eggs and fertilize them, roughly one fourth of the distance across the United States. Without enough reserves in their bodies to get back to the Pacific, the adult salmon spawn and die. To spawn, a female salmon scoops a nest in stream-bottom gravel by waving her tail and deposits her eggs in